EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
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The African Ministerial Conference on Environment (AMCEN) meeting in Kampala
and the launch of the Africa Environment Outlook: Past, Present and Future
Perspectives marked the beginning of key activities for the year 2002. It was
Uganda’s turn for the Presidency of AMCEN. In the same year Uganda participated
in the World Summit on Sustainable Development. Uganda’s fifth State of
Environment Report, focusing on the relationship between poverty and the
environment, was also compiled in the year 2002.
As a landlocked country with high altitude, equatorial country in East Africa, with
landscapes ranging from wetlands to arid savannahs, with soils that are depleted and
ancient to others, new and fertile, Uganda’s position qualifies it for a land of contrasts
for both inhabitants and visitors. The peoples, too, are diverse and dynamic. There are
nomadic pastoralists, settled agriculturalists and refugees from regions of conflicts.
The population is relatively small, largely rural but growing rapidly. This poses
challenges for development, the provision of services and to environment.
Sustainable Development
Environmental issues in Uganda are addressed within a sustainable development
framework that promotes social, economic and environmental well-being through the
decentralised and participatory environmental mode of management. This kind of
management is made possible through the Poverty Eradication Action Plan which
serves as Uganda’s Comprehensive Development Framework and Poverty Reduction
Strategy Paper. Once strengthened in environmental terms the PEAP could also
become Uganda’s National Strategy for Sustainable Development. The district
development and environment action planning strategies are also part of the
sustainable development process. In this report environmental factors are linked to
other sectors and to the African and Global Environment Outlook reporting.
Economic well-being
During 2001/02, economic growth slowed to 5.6%, the agricultural sector being the
main contributor to the GDP. This proportion has been declining as the economy
becomes modernised. Consumption poverty decreased from 56% to 35% between
1992 and 2002 except in northern Uganda where it rose, largely due to insecurity.
People identified lack of access to things like clothes, a radio, blankets, food and
bicycles as markers of poverty. Crowding in refugee camps reduces the per capita
acreage under cultivation. This aggravates poverty.
Uganda is now at its most indebted level ever with a debt of US $3.622 billion – 18
percent of export earnings is paid in servicing debt. On the other hand, there has been
remarkable improvement in the domestic investment (from 7 to 20 %). Industry is still
dominated by food processing within the Central Region and is associated with a
growing pollution.
Effective transport and communications services are a prerequisite for development
and carry implications for sustainability. Transport services include roads, railways
and shipping. Road transport accounts for an estimated 99% of passenger traffic
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(there is no passenger rail service) and 95% of freight traffic. Road traffic is
associated with accidents, pollution, and congestion causing delays, and uncontrolled
urban development. There is inadequate public transport and ineffective regulation of
vehicles. Non-motorised transport remains the means for most people. Most
community roads are in poor condition, while 50% of the district and urban roads are
in reasonable condition. Environmental aspects of road development include loss of
land and vegetation cover, siltation of water and wetlands, erosion, noise and
interruption of migratory routes for wildlife if not well planned.
Railways mainly carry international freight, domestic volumes being insignificant. Air
services are used for tourism, high value perishable export commodities and high
value imports. International passenger traffic declined in 2000 and was expected to
decline further. Export cargo also declined slightly. Upcountry services have
unsustainable volumes. Shipping exports were up 44% in the period 1999-2000 but
imports were down. Currently the fleet consists of 1 new and 5 aging ferries.
Communications have blossomed in recent years. Cellphones roughly doubled in each
of the last 2 years. 70% of all district capitals are on the network. Internet usage has
also snowballed and become popular, so have FM radios. There are about 100 stations
in the country.
Social well-being
Uganda’s rural settlement patterns are wasteful of land and deficient in many essential
services. Urbanisation has generally increased, and 80% of the urban population can
be classified as the poor who live in the least serviced, unplanned slums in the
outskirts of towns, 96% of the poor people live in rural areas.
Water and sanitation are essential for health and development. Uganda is committed
to halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water by the year
2015. Rural safe water coverage increased from 18% to over 50% between 1991 and
2002, and private sector participation in the water supply to small towns has thrived.
About fifty percent of the water supply comes from surface water and 41.5% from
ground water (protected springs, shallow wells, boreholes). Sanitation coverage is
estimated at 50%, though mainly through pit latrines, which contaminate the ground
water that people rely on. Since 1999 surface reservoirs of 2.4 million cubic metres
have been built to meet the dry season water requirements of 13% of the nation’s
livestock. The Water Permits Systems to administrate surface water and ground water
abstraction has issued 28 permits since 1998. Twenty three of these are still being
processed. There is a need to develop new guidelines.
In 1998 there was a housing backlog of 350 000. Homelessness has become a feature
in rural as well as urban areas. The private sector is increasingly providing housing
which is better planned, and this represents a significant improvement in healthy
living, including garbage collection and sewerage treatment. This has been made
accessible and possible through a variety of cost savings and financing options. The
scarcity of land and building materials continue to put prices up, reducing
accessibility for the poor.
Access to health care facilities is limited to 49% of households and only 43% of rural
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parishes have any form of health facility, which is often far from optimal and with
dilapidated infrastructure. Only 34% of the established positions are filled with
qualified staff. They tend to favour urban areas, and are unreliably paid. Uganda’s
infant mortality rate is the worst in East Africa and the fertility rate the highest.
Malaria is the principal public health problem in Uganda. It is spreading and there
was an epidemic in 2000/02. On average people are affected by malaria every 6
months. and lose about 10 working days a year. Only 49% of Ugandans seek medical
treatment when they fall sick (due to cost), and only 40-70% of those have mosquito
nets and use them. Cholera was another major killer in 2002, and dysentery
experienced a four-fold increase in the number of reported cases since 1999.
Respiratory tract infections (often associated with air pollution) are the main reasons
for acute consultations in primary health. Children under five show increasing levels
of chronic malnutrition since 1995. Immunisation reaches a higher proportion of
people in urban areas and especially those with better-educated mothers.
Biophysical integrity
Climate
The climate plays a vital role in the economic well-being due to the country’s
dependence on its natural capital. Climate change, brought about by increased
greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, brings about the risks of more frequent and more
severe droughts and floods and possible new areas of vector-borne diseases. This
change in climate could also bring out changes to the forest cover and biodiversity.
Uganda is a signatory to the UN Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto
Protocol. Uganda is a net sink for greenhouse gases and contributes to carbon
sequestration through ‘Activity Implemented Jointly’ initiatives – specifically through
planting trees to absorb other countries’ emissions.
Climate variability, especially rainfall, is influenced by fluctuations in the Indian
Ocean, and by the Southern Oscillations. In the last 50 years, western Uganda has had
a greater number of drier years than the rest of the country. More significant is the
variation within a year when a long dry spell may mean travelling a long way for
water, for humans and livestock. Again, western Uganda has been hit by long dry
periods (e.g. in 1999). Such considerations also impact on wildlife. Wildlife may as a
consequence have to move beyond protected areas to survive, and (hydroelectric
schemes), which may produce less power during droughts. In 1997, wide areas of the
country experienced excessive flooding which claimed lives and property.
Land
Uganda’s land consists of 35% farmland, 21% grasslands, 20% forest/woodlands,
15% water bodies, 6% bushland and 3% commercial farms/urban areas. Settlement
patterns vary, with land ranging from densely populated to uninhabited, with land
degradation worse in the more populated areas and in the fragile, arid and semi-arid
pastoral areas. There is escalating soil erosion, a decrease in soil fertility,
agrochemical pollution and an increasing tendency towards desertification. Kabale,
Kisoro, Bundibugyo, Kasese, Kabarole, Kapchorwa and Mbale are the most affected,
areas but even in flat areas such as Iganga, Kamuli, Tororo and Kumi, soil erosion is
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occurring at an alarming rate. Rivers from the mountainous regions have high
sediment loads (1 tonne/day has been measured). Semi-arid and dry areas of Kumi,
Soroti, Katakwi, Moroto and Nakapiripirit districts experience extensive wind erosion
during the dry season as a consequence of burning bushes, which leave the soil
exposed. Soil losses of 1.4-19.4 tonnes/ha/yr have been recorded on 10-45% slopes,
causing a loss of vegetation cover, which is important in preventing soil loss. It was
found that 46.5% of the land area of the 19 districts studied was affected by soil
erosion.
Land degradation is influenced by the type of ownership, utilisation and management
systems. It affects the ability of the land to support plant and animal life, and to
preserve terrestrial biodiversity. Consequently regulation of the hydrological cycle
and other ecosystem services have been impaired. The problems are generated by
over-stocking and inappropriate rangeland burning, and accelerated by the high
population growth rate. Soil erosion is estimated to be responsible for over 80 percent
of the annual cost of environmental degradation.
Agriculture
Perennial crops are grown in high rainfall areas (bananas and coffee, often intercropped
with a wide range of annual crops - maize, cassava, sweet potatoes, coco
yams, beans). Sugarcane and tea are mainly grown in large commercial estates.
Production of annual crops mainly takes place in lower rainfall areas with a prolonged
dry season. The crops include finger millet, sorghum, maize, cassava, sweet potatoes,
simsim, pigeon peas, groundnuts, phaseolus beans, cowpeas and grazing. With the
current expansion rates, the demand for agricultural land will exceed available arable
land by the year 2032, if improvements in productivity are not realised.
About 85% of the population depend on agriculture for their livelihood. The
agricultural sector contributed 42% of the total GDP in 2000 and accounted for 85%
of the export earnings. Uganda does not import significant quantities of food and
agricultural raw materials. The horticultural sector has almost tripled its export
earnings for Uganda over the last six years. Floriculture exports, in particular, have
grown by 475% in value since 1995. In 2002, farmers received Ush15-20,000 per
kilogram for good quality vanilla, making it the highest value crop ever grown in
Uganda. The quality of horticultural exports is very important, and if products do not
meet the agreed quality, the customer may not pay. Growth of horticulture exports is
constrained by production rather than market factors. Since Uganda is dependent on
airfreight for nearly all extra-regional horticultural exports, the sector will always be
restricted to very high value products.
Cereal yields are much lower than their potential and the demand often outstrips
supply. Yields can be improved by growing high yielding varieties. Agroforestry is
practiced and is beneficial, but methods can be improved. Among current horticulture
export products which have growth potential are small/intermediate roses, gerbera,
tropical flowers and foliage, plant cuttings, fresh chilli, passion fruit, okra, vanilla,
sun-dried tropical fruits and papain. Uganda has over 300,000 ha of irrigatable land.
Introducing irrigation in Karamoja is under consideration but would come with risks
of salinisation and exacerbating over-grazing. Mechanisation is limited mainly to oxploughs.
Hand tools are still the main means of cultivation.
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Agriculture is the main cause of environmental degradation in the country primarily
due to inappropriate agricultural practices. Ugandans still largely practice extensive
agriculture, which invariably leads to land degradation. The low level of technology,
low yields and low prices further reinforce extensive agriculture. Cultivation is low
input (mainly rainfed, uses manual labour as opposed to mechanisation and negligible
input of agrochemicals) and low output. This also leads to extensive farming and
poses a risk to food security. Extensive methods have environmental impacts, which
include shifting, and excessive cultivation, over-grazing, land fragmentation,
deforestation, and bush burning. Agrochemical use is low (though encouraged) and
frequently misused due to illiteracy, and inadequate extension services. The
consequence of which is pollution.
Water
Though well endowed with fresh water, Uganda faces a looming water crisis
particularly in the arid areas. It is estimated that Uganda needs to double the current
availability of water to meet future needs. Rapid population growth and increasing per
capita usage has already made the demand for water a problem. NWSC supplies
piped water to 15 districts, with Arua, Bushenyi, and Soroti added since 2000. Water
costs USh1,000/m3, which includes the cost of treating sewage. There is potential for
water harvesting especially in unserviced areas. Ground water is used as a water
source, particularly in arid areas. This has risks, which include land salination and
vegetation loss through over-grazing (by pastoralists attracted to the new water
sources). Protected springs have been found to have high levels of faecal
contamination.
The livestock population (4.5 million) has a fresh water demand of 81 million m3/yr,
and this demand level is projected to increase to 233 million m3/yr by 2010 as
livestock numbers increase. There is great potential for irrigation to increase
agricultural production on about 247,230 ha, with an estimated ultimate water use of
2572.6 million m3/yr (current use is about 207 million m3/yr).
The quality of surface water has been deteriorating. Lake Victoria is being heavily
polluted by both domestic and industrial discharge and by agricultural runoff (eg
nitrogen and phosphorous washed down from the surrounding tea and coffee
plantations). Unsustainable farming practices and over-grazing also cause soil
erosion, which results in increased sediment loads in rivers, siltation of dams and
lakes, and the degradation of habitats. This accelerates the growth of the water
hyacinth, much as bio-control has been quite successful.
Forests
Forests and woodlands cover about 4.9 million ha or 24% of the total land area, of
which about 19% is tropical forest. Of the total, 70% is on private or customary land
with 547,485 ha of natural forests on government land. The natural forest production
area is 141,000ha (78% over-felled) and plantations 8176ha. The northern region is
dominated by woodlands, and the majority of the tropical high forests and plantations
are in the western region. Many districts are experiencing firewood shortages,
increasing the price and the distance women and children travel to collect firewood.
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Biomass in forest reserves (except UWA’s) is 82,793 million tonnes, with the CFRs
holding more than half.
Wood harvesting is increasing faster than population growth. Forest cover has shrunk
from 52% of Uganda’s surface area to 24%. Annual deforestation rates are 9-17%/yr
for different forest types. FAO demand projection for sawlogs for 2002 –2004 so far
exceeds the sustainable supplies from plantations and natural forests. By 2001,
permits for 9,690 ha in CFRs had been issued for private woodlot development, 70%
of which had been planted and only 1,330 ha established so far, while 28,485 ha in
CFR permits had been issued for sawlog production by the private sector.
Over 90% of Ugandans depend on fuelwood as their primary source of energy and
close to 1 million people earn their income from forestry. Products and services
include building materials, farm implements, animal and vegetable foods, herbal
medicine, tourism, filtering out pollution, CO2 sinks, recycling rain, regulating soil
and water quality, protecting from soil erosion, contributing to fertility and
agricultural productivity and preserving biodiversity. Only 3% of potential revenue
from wood utilisation was collected in 1998 but this was up 68% by 2000/02 due to
the curbing of illegal activities, an effective revenue collection system, a new fees
structure which has now been enforced. By contrast, eco-tourism revenue (though
currently only about 2% in total value) has grown 467% since the mid-1990s. The
price for Class I timber is now three times the price five years ago. Together with
policy adjustments, this indicates an increase in demand over supply.
The Forest Department manages the 15% of forests under the Central Forest
Reserves, while the other, not in private land, is in national parks and wildlife
reserves, managed by the UWA. For the first time the new Forestry Policy (2001)
provides for sustainable management of natural forests on private land. Local forest
reserves which are under the management of cultural institutions and local
governments are generally being poorly managed.
Wetlands
Wetlands provide water to about five million people, many of them owning sizeable
numbers of livestock. Wetlands also purify industrial and domestic effluent. Several
million households are engaged in wetland farming. This includes harvesting papyrus
and clay for pottery, brick-making, and sand mining.
Wetlands are being rapidly converted for development purposes (with Jinja District at
the top of the list at 80% of its wetlands converted). This is considered to be a rightful
and development oriented activity, even by government. Although comprehensive
legislation is in place, there is little enforcement. Barriers to preserving wetlands
include the desire to meet immediate needs, weak management capacity, ignorance of
the law, and weak enforcement mechanisms.
Wetland draining is carried out for rice cultivation in the east, pasture or cultivation in
the southwest, large-scale sugar production in Mukono and construction of
settlements, roads and brick-making in urban centres. Wetland draining has caused
disruption in the supply of water, reduction in water quality, change in microclimate,
lowering of the water table and flooding. Fortunaltely, the damage to permanent
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wetlands in rural areas is probably still relatively limited.
An inventory of all wetlands was completed in 2000, and in 2002 The National
Biomass Study produced a detailed wetlands map covering all districts. WID has
developed an institutional framework for wetlands management and allocated
US$520,000 under WSSP for capacity building at both national and district levels.
Some communities in Kumi, Kabale, Mbale and Masaka Districts with the support of
NGOs and CBOs have developed Community Wetlands Management Plans.
Consideration is being given to recommending protection for some wetlands with
unique attributes.
Wildlife
The Constitution protects Uganda’s wildlife and habitat, and The Wildlife Statute
mandates the Uganda Wildlife Authority with this responsibility. UWA revenues
come exclusively from wildlife related tourism, 40% of which is currently derived
from gorilla tourism, and this is operating near to capacity. Most of the PAs do not
generate revenue. In 2000/01 total revenue was 2,969,000,915/= from 52,222 visitors,
mostly Ugandans. In 2000, UWA established a Department of Tourism, Business
Development and Planning to promote tourism. Most expenditure goes to support
UWA HQ, Murchison and Queen Elizabeth National Parks (QENPs).
The new Wildlife Protected Area System will enhance the conservation of some
important areas and downgrade or degazette others that no longer merit their status. In
addition to national parks wildlife reserves, and animal sanctuaries, this will include
five Community Wildlife Areas. All CHAs will be revoked except for those parts
becoming WRs or CWAs. Some areas will disappear entirely. These areas exclude
forest reserves, except where there is dual management.
Three Community Protected Area Institutions were established to ensure that
communities have a voice in wildlife management and benefits from it. CPIs face
inadequate capacity for effective wildlife management and lack of resources. UWA
involves local governments, landowners, the private sector and NGOs in
environmental management. Partners are also implementing community conservation
programmes. Wildlife Use Rights in Uganda have met with challenges including
insufficient baseline data, limited capacity in quota setting (human, financial and
technical), and lack of species monitoring and enforcement.
Conflicts between people and wildlife occur over the loss of property, death or injury,
crop loss and disease transmission (human and livestock). Conflicts are exacerbated
by population pressure and poverty. This leads to poaching and encroachment into
PAs. Vermin and problem animals are two challenges. Some wildlife has been forced
into agricultural areas because of the loss of their original habitat. UWA’s strategies
to tackle problem animals include live and electric fencing, trenches, stonewalls,
sharp sticks and stones, translocation, scaring, joint management with communities,
and eco-tourism. Illegal activities in which wildlife is involved include hunting, and
trade in wildlife products particularly possession, the importation and transit of
Parrots, Chimpanzees and Monkeys.
UWA conducts a twice-yearly aerial census of wildlife populations. From 1995 to
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2000, there have been increases in elephant, giraffe and hippo populations. Zebra,
buffalo, impala and kob populations are stable, but Bright’s gazelle, Roan Antelope
and Eland are rare, and Topi are rare and decreasing and Derby’s Eland, Oryx and
White and Black Rhino are extinct. Wildlife populations have been greatly affected
by poaching, habitat destruction and conflict (eg in Virunga Volcanoes, home to more
than 300 gorillas). UWA has a translocation programme for wildlife re-introduction,
re-inforcement and conservation. In 2002, giraffes were translocated from Murchison
Falls National Park to Kidepo Valley National Park, and the remaining four elephants
in Luwero District were translocated to Murchison Falls National Park.
Fisheries
Uganda’s population of 24.6 million people is estimated to consume about 320,000
tonnes/yr of fish, close to the maximum sustainable yield. Twice as much nile perch
as talapia is caught and 81% of the catch comes from Lakes Victoria and Kyoga.
About 60% is sold fresh and 40% processed. 20% of those who process fish use
traditional methods: sun-drying, salting, frying and hot-smoking. The last two often
contribute to localised deforestation. There are problems in meeting hygiene standards
for fish processing, and the processing plants pollute waterways. Traditional
processing methods generate significant post-harvest losses estimated at 20–30%.
Fisheries are affected by pollution from the water hyacinth. Nutrients from
agricultural, industrial and domestic sources, cause eutrophication which deprives the
fish of oxygen. Though much improved, the water hyacinth is still a problem. Native
species have been devastated by introduction of aliens, but new introductions are now
controlled by the National Environment Statute. The condition of fisherfolk
communities is truly appalling with high levels of malarial and waterborne diseases
symptomatic of poor environmental conditions.
Progressively higher quantities of fish are being taken out of waterbodies. The
projected increase will dramatically exceed the current maximum sustainable yield.
Fishing effort is increasing but catch per effort decreasing.
Fish provides for about 50% of Ugandans’ solid animal protein intake, and 636,000
people work directly or indirectly in fisheries. Fish exports are expected to increase
from US$50 million in 2000/01 to US$87 million in 2001/02 reflecting a volume
growth of 32.4% and price growth of 31.6%. Prices have been increasing since the
early 1980s making fish increasingly inaccessible to the poor, which adversely affects
their nutrition status.
Fisheries management has been decentralised, but local governments lack the required
management capacity. The conflicting roles of extensionist and enforcer have been an
issue. The high water table in fishing communities makes it impossible to construct
traditional pit latrines and waterless toilets have been tried. Some communities have
boreholes or gravity flow schemes for safe water.
Biodiversity
On a global scale Uganda has an exceptional biodiversity for its size. More than
18,783 species have been recorded in Uganda. Biodiversity hotspots include Sango
Bay, the Albertine Rift Area (the most important area for bird endemism in Africa)
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and several areas highlighted for a particular species. There are 90 types of vegetation
community, but little is undisturbed. Uganda has over 300 endemic fish species. Over
30 indigenous plant species are endangered, 30 are rare and 10 are vulnerable.
Biodiversity is also important in agriculture. Uganda has over 400 varieties of beans,
53 varieties of domestic animals and 130 cultivars of banana. Bananas are sterile
clones and particularly vulnerable to disease because resistant varieties cannot easily
be bred.
The data shows decline in species (except marabou storks) and ecosystems (forest and
wetlands) by up to 34% per decade (for elephants). Uganda has lost about 55% of its
forest and woodland since 1890. Soil biodiversity underpins all other ecosystems and
though little is known about its status, it is most likely being lost due to general soil
loss and degradation. Modern crop improvement does not favour genetic variability,
and exotics may not cope with local conditions and diseases.
Biodiversity is estimated to contribute over US$1,000 million/year to the national
economy. Direct benefits include forest and woodland resources, other plant
resources, livestock, wildlife and inland water systems. Indirect benefits include
controlling erosion control, carbon sequestration, water purification and retention.
There are also the medical uses, current and potential. The biodiversity costs are at
least UShs506 million/year from management and opportunity costs. Indigenous
people have intellectual property rights to their knowledge of their biodiversity
resources, which must be safeguarded, and which will typically involve the species
they have access to and use. Biodiversity loss is likely to impact on exports and
employment.
Uganda has a range of legislation and policy to protect biodiversity. This includes the
new Forestry Policy (2001), which emphasises the maintenance of the forest cover to
conserve biodiversity and vital ecological services. Decentralisation has had negative
impacts on biodiversity, since districts perceive it as low priority. Similarly, crossborder
bioregions need integrated management, but this is not happening. Local
communities have the biggest impact on the potential to manage and benefit from
biodiversity, but few people benefit from it. NARO holds a great variety of
germplasm at its research institutions (ex situ conservation), but Uganda needs to
develop a centrally managed biodiversity data management system. Theoretically
Uganda embraces biotechnology, but since there is no effective control mechanism
for GM materials, NARO has not knowingly authorised the importation of any GM
crop seed.
Energy
Uganda meets 93% of its energy needs from biomass, mostly derived from natural
forests and woodlands. About eighty percent of this is for domestic use, largely as
firewood. Where charcoal is concerned, as much as 90% of the biomass calorific
value is lost during charcoal production. Priority areas for biomass include fuelwood
plantation and efficient stoves and kilns. Petroleum products (6% of energy used) are
imported and used mostly in the form of petrol and diesel. Prospecting for oil and gas
at five sites has yielded promising results in the Semliki Basin and drilling has begun.
Petroleum extraction has environmental impacts and risks, for which NEMA is
developing a policy. Petrol station proliferation is also impacting the landscape.
Similarly, only one percent of energy used is electricity, and this comes mostly from
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hydro. Only 1% of rural Uganda has access to the electricity grid and generally supply
does not meet demand. Capacity is expected to increase by about 200MW from 2001-
2003, and 35 rural electrification schemes have been completed. There is potential
capacity, but ability to pay remains a barrier. Other energy sources include
photovoltaic solar (growing, but low power and expensive), solar thermal (private
sector only, so far), geothermal (not yet explored – major capital expense), biogas
(small, farm-based schemes) and biodiesel (not yet explored, but great potential).
Minerals
There is a notable increase in the development of the mining sector, but a general
decline in mineral production (Ushs.63.8billion in 2000 to Ushs.43.1 billion in 2001).
Minerals mined include vermiculite, gold, wolfram, columbite, tantalite and
limestone. There was a slight increase in mineral exports. MEMD maintains
geoscience databases of mineral and mining information.
Pollution
Growing population pressure around Lake Victoria is increasing the pollution in the
area. Most water pollution in the Lake is domestic in origin, but a number of
industries including sugar, textiles, oil, and distilleries are particularly polluting the
environment. A pollution licensing system is in operation by DWD. Cleaner
production methods are being adopted by industries including fish processing, sugar
production and packaging. This has resulted in reduced production costs, and lower
pollution. Burning waste is the major source of urban air pollution, as there is no
waste management system. Hazardous waste is also unmanaged. This includes biohazardous
and pharmaceutical waste, pesticide packaging, oil, PCBs, asbestos and
batteries (heavy metals). Noise is an increasing problem. Sources of this noise include
music, religious expression, generators, traffic and quarries.
Poverty
There is an established link between poverty, the environment and sustainable
development. The poor are both victims and agents of environmental degradation,
although the wealthy have more power to inflict environmental damage. Poverty is
experienced by families and individuals as powerlessness and lack of secure access to
the necessities of life. For the communities, poverty means lack of essential services,
infrastructure or social harmony. Poverty is defined as complex, multi-dimensional,
cyclical, seasonal and touches on issues of inequality, health, education and
vulnerability. In particular situations, it is the perspective of the people themselves
that is important. Environmental health is the social impact of where the environment
and poverty meet. It is defined as the risk of exposure to biological agents, chemical
agents, disease vectors and safety hazards. In Uganda, over 90% of all diseases are
related to the state of the environment in which people live.
For a decade Uganda has had an economic growth rate of over 5% per annum, but
still remains one of the world’s poorest countries, ranked 159th out of 175 according
to the Human Development Index of 1998 but improving. The relative measure of
headcount poverty has declined from 54% in 1992 to 35% by 2001. But economic
progress is perhaps being obtained at the expense of the environment. The experience
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of the forestry sector in 1993 was that the devolution of power to the local level led to
sacrifice of long-term sustainability to short-term employment and revenue interests.
To improve local management requires investment at the local level in order for
revenue from the resources to accrue.
Fishing is one of the highest income primary industry sectors, but on social measures
it is one of the poorest, illustrating cultural and governance dimensions to the problem
of poverty. IML is addressing these issues through setting up Beach Management
Units for local participation in managing the industry and the environment. Wetlands
provide a small income to a large proportion of neighbouring communities, but have
increasingly been taken over for cultivation by individuals for short-term,
unsustainable gain. In one rice-growing area where there is no more productivity, a
management plan has been established to return part of the wetland to its former
functioning, for purposes of re-establishing wider benefits and to enhance
sustainability.
Vulnerability
Vulnerability refers to people’s ability to cope with physical threats, including natural
resource degradation, natural disasters and armed conflict. These threats may include
such phenomena as desertification, freshwater degradation and pollution, biodiversity
loss, floods, droughts, earthquakes, and disease epidemics. Uganda has experienced a
number of such threats.
Land degradation in the Karamoja region is creating desert-like conditions This has
resulted in increasing levels of conflict with neighbours. The traditional mechanism
for coping with the variable ability of the land to support people and their cattle has
been the practice of transhumance, which is now being constantly challenged and
constrained. Uganda has experienced flooding episodes. The most recent El Nino
floods claimed lives and property in Kampala, Mbale, Nebbi and Rukungiri. Uganda
has also experienced drought. The Karimojong have dealt with this problem by
encroaching on neighbouring districts, which causes conflict, and over-grazing
causing desertification. Uganda is prone to earthquakes and in 1994 a number of
buildings were destroyed and people killed by an earthquake (with its epicentre) in
Kabarole. HIV/AIDS has infected 10% of the adult population resulting in at least 1.5
million children under 15 years to lose their mother or both parents. A decline in the
infection rate has been due to positive changes in risk-taking behaviour, especially in
urban areas. This change in behaviour includes avoiding high-risk contact with
widows and widowers, using condoms, sticking to one partner and taking HIV tests.
The last option, is by far the least popular. An EBOLA epidemic struck northern
Uganda in 2000. A total of 425 cases resulted in 224 deaths countrywide (a fatality
rate of 53%). The epidemic lasted less than 5 months. Success at controlling it hinged
on effective coordination, communication and infection control mechanisms. Uganda
has also been the victim of armed conflicts, which have resulted in over half a million
IDPs in 6 districts, more than half of them under 15 years old. In addition, there are
190,000 refugees in Uganda, mainly from Sudan, Congo, Kenya, Rwanda and
Burundi. Refugees have themselves become internally displaced due to rebel
activities. The land surrounding the camps and settlements is overstretched because of
having to support many people in one place. This has led to environmental
degradation and conflict with the locals.
National Environment Management Authority
State of Environment Report for Uganda 2002

Environmental governance
NEMA is mandated to monitor, supervise and co-ordinate environmental matters in
Uganda. NEMA works together with local governments, civil society, communities
and development partners, and publishes bi-annual national state of environment
reports. NEMA relates horizontally with other sectors as provided for in the National
Environment Statute 1995, and links vertically with local governments through the
Local Governments Act 1997. Uganda has been able to achieve so much in the sphere
of environmental management because of very strong political support, but overall
responsibility for environmental management rests squarely with individual Ugandans
who are the farmers, landholders and consumers.
Uganda holds the presidency of AMCEN till 2004, is party to the Lusaka Agreement
concerned with illegal wildlife trafficking and is a member of the East African
Community, and the Nile Basin Initiative.
The environment is low priority in the allocation of domestic resources compared to
education, health and defence, and funding from the Poverty Action Fund does not
include the environment. Currently, development partners are increasingly moving
away from projects to supporting programmes or budgets. A few still support the
project approach. The country’s success to date in implementing the provisions of
Agenda 21 has been largely due to an effective partnership with regional and
international organisations.
Responsibility for managing the environment has been devolved to the districts and
lower local governments, whose Local Environment Committees are expected to
participate in planning, raising public awareness, mobilisation and monitoring
environment related issues. But capacity at local government level is weak and most
LECs are not functioning. Local governments are also directly responsible for
enforcement of applicable national laws, district ordinances, and lower level local
government bye-laws, and a few districts have been able to draft production and
environment ordinances.
Communities all over the country are engaged in environmental management. NGOs
contribute towards the implementation of environmental management policies,
instigate local community projects, advise NEMA in their areas of specialisation, and
are involved in the development of District Environmental Action Plans. They also
lobby and do advocacy work. There is an enabling policy and legal framework in
place for the greater participation of the private sector in environmental management,
and private leases have been obtained on forest reserves.
Future outlook
Scenario planning is a way of projecting into the future repercussions of decisions
we make as a society. In 1999, Ugandans conducted a scenario planning study, which
resulted in a national outlook, Vision 2025, stated simply as ‘Prosperous People,
Harmonious Nation, Beautiful Country’. The Vision contained four possible
scenarios: the Flying Crane, the Ostrich, the Peaceful Slumber and the Moribund
scenario. These scenarios correspond to those identified in the African Environment
National Environment Management Authority
State of Environment Report for Uganda 2002

Outlook (AEO), onto which this report is based. These are: Market Forces (where
decisions are left up to the market), Policy Reform (where government policy drives
decision-making), Fortress World (where individual, community and national security
is the driver); and Great Transitions (where a culture of equity and sustainability is
engendered).
The driving forces behind these alternatives include demography, economic
development, human development, science and technology, governance, culture and
environment. Uganda’s population is young, rural, sparse and growing rapidly. This
makes service provision and social security a challenge and increases environmental
impacts. A primary industry based economy can only take development so far, and at
an environmental cost. Issues of health, sanitation and gender equity still plague
development, so do tribal divisions and cultural attrition to western values. Though
lagging behind in the technological revolutions of the last century, Uganda is
producing some of its most-needed biotech solutions and is leapfrogging into the
mobile phone era. Creeping desertification and pollution are making the poor poorer.
Will the results of the constitutional review and decentralisation processes result in
improved governance? Ugandans will have to wait and see.
Under the Fortress World scenario, the quality of land, air, water and vegetation
deteriorates creating increasing conflict and poverty, and increasingly heavy-handed
security measures, with protected enclaves for the elite. In the Market Forces
Scenario, urbanisation soars creating urban sprawl, 2-hour journey times and
pollution. The commons are plundered with global warming which devastates the
coffee industry, horizon-to-horizon seed oil and forests becoming sterile, exotic
monocultures. Waiting lists to visit biodiversity hotspots push prices beyond the reach
of any African, and water, health care and sanitation are available to anyone who can
afford it. Under Policy Reform strict control of the worst environmental abuses slow
the impact of development, protected areas are really protected and thrive, and
plantations boom. Health, water, sanitation and education reforms ease population
growth and boost life expectancy, with social safety nets, a vibrant private sector and
effective policing creating secure cities. In the Great Transitions Scenario,
stewardship of land, air, water and biodiversity is enculturated. This leads to a
thriving environment, high productivity, improved health, sanitation and growing,
diverse and vibrant cities.
Some environmental aspects are beyond the control of a single country, and some
aspects of culture are resistant to change. Questions: To what extent will Uganda be a
victim of its history? To what extent can decisions be made in order to choose an
alternative attractive future?
Options for Action
This State of Environment Report (SoER) includes some recommendations for action
in order to inform policymakers of what is happening to the environment, and what
could be considered to be viable remedies.
Debate the frequency of district and national environment reporting. Develop
indicators for monitoring and reporting.

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